Organotin (IV) Compounds: Chemistry, Properties and Uses

Organotin (IV) Compounds: Chemistry, Properties and Uses Introduction 1.1 Tin Element It is undeniably that many research and studies had been done in the field of organotin chemistry for the past half century. Sn which is symbol bared by tin which is called as stannum in Latin. It is placed on group 14 and period 5 in the periodic table with atomic number of 50. It has an electronic configuration of [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p2. The table 1.1 below show properties of tin (Davies, et al., 2008).The chemical properties was shared similarity with germanium and lead. Moreover, tin form compounds which has +2 and +4 as its oxidation number with +4 has slightly higher stability. Hence, formation of tetrahedral tin atoms occur when four valence electrons involved in the sp3 hybridization. Table 1.1: Tin Properties (Davies, et al., 2008) Based on Tin Chemistry: Fundamentals, Frontiers and Application, it was stated that tin has the stable isotopes of ten and also with the highest number of any element in the periodic table of isotopes. Thus, tin exhibit vary characteristic of the mass spectra. From on the table 1.2 shown below, it appear that both isotopes of 117 and 119 with spin of  ½ are used in the Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy (Davies, et al., 2008). Table 1.2: Stable isotopes of Tin (Davies, et al., 2008. p. 3) It is found that metallic tin occur in two states which is ÃŽ ±-tin and ÃŽ ²-tin. The ÃŽ ²-tin exists as distorted cubic structure and function as electric conductor. Whereas, ÃŽ ±-tin is formed when ÃŽ ²-tin is converted slowly at temperature below 10 °C. Besides that, ÃŽ ±-tin exits as a diamond structure which have the properties as a semiconductor. The physical appearances of tin is white and possess inertness at ambient temperature. However, tin will only undergo oxidation to SnO2 at 200 °C since it is a malleable post transition metal (Davies, et al., 2008). 1.2 History of Tin Tin has been discovered around 3500 BC and it is known as an element that strengthen copper by forming copper-tin alloy which actually begin as early as Bronze Age civilization. The tin present in surface of Earth is only approximately 2 ppm which is far lesser compared to zinc, copper and lead. The production of tin mainly from mining and smelting (Davies, 2004). In 1849, gives the birth of the first organotin(IV) compound, diethyltin diiodide synthesized by Edward Frankland which ultimately set as a new era in the field of tin chemistry. Frankland basically studies the behavior of the reaction between ethyl iodide and zinc heated in a sealed tube. It was that time found out that the decomposition of iodide of ethyl is affected by tin at the range of temperature between 150 °C to 200 °C (Davies, 2004). Threfore, his research practically set as a seed for further studies and was further stimulated around 1949 when various application of tin was discovered. Truly structural changes of compounds between the solution and solid states plays a crucial role in the organotin(IV) chemistry and its applications. In early studies of the 60s and 70s, Mà ¶ssbauer spectrosocopy was used to determine the sturcture of the complexes. Nevertheless, it is now been dominantly used with X-ray crstallography and 119Sn NMR due to better technology and resolution (Davies, 2004). 1.3 Preparation of Organotin(IV) Carboxylates Organotin(IV) carboxylates’s formula is RnSn(O2CRËÅ  )4-n . The complexes can be produced by reacting organotin(IV) oxide or hyrdroxide with comparable carboxylic acid. (equation 1.1 to1.3) R3SnOH or (R3Sn)2O + RËÅ  COOHà ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚   R3SnOOCRËÅ   + H2O (1.1) R2SnO + 2RËÅ  COOR à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚   R2Sn(OOCRËÅ  )2 + H2O (1.2) RSn(O)OH + 3RËÅ  COOH à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚   RSN(OOCRËÅ  )3 (1.3) Esterification reaction is accomplished between organotin(IV) oxides or hydroxides and carboxylic acids by azeotrophic dehydration. The above equations’ reactions will depend on the mixing of different mole ratio of acid and base with appropriate solvent. The side products, water was removed by Dean-Stark apparatus and molecular sieve. Furthermore, organotin(IV) carboxylates can be prepared by reacting organotin(IV) chloride with metal carboxylates. (equation 1.4). Meanwhile, when a tin-carbon cleaved with carboxylic acid, it can also produce organotin(IV) carboxylates or cleaved with mercury(I) or mercury (II), or lead (IV) carboxylate as shown below (Davies, 2004). (equation 1.5-1.6) RnSnCI4-n + 4-nRËÅ  COOM à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚   RnSn(OOCRËÅ  )4-n + 4-nMCI (1.4) R4Sn + RËÅ  COOHà ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚   R3SnOOCRËÅ   +RH (1.5) R4Sn + RËÅ  COOM à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚   R3SnOOCRËÅ   +RM (1.6) 1.4Structures of Triorganotin(IV) Complexes Basically the general formula for triorganotin(IV) complexes would be R3SnX and it is widely studied. This is due to the higher biological activity of triorganotin(IV) complexes compared to diorganotin(IV) complexes. The R group highly influence the biocidal activities as it contains three Sn-C whereas their volatility and solubility is affected by the X group (Kizlink, 2001). The toxicity also decreases with a decrease of organic groups bind to the tin atom. However, reviews indicated that X group itself is active biologically and an increased of aqueous solubility will lead to increased of activity (Davies, et al., 2008). Meanwhile, chelation of triorganotin monomer or polymer with a five coordination leads to a decreased of activities (Davies, et al., 2008). 1:1 molar ratio of carboxylic acid and triorganoitn(IV) base are used to prepare triorganotin(IV) complexes (IMTIAZ-UD-DIN and BADSHAH, 2010; Win, 2012). There are two main types of structures possess by triorganotin(IV) complexes which is chain and discrete structures. Figure 1.1 shows frequent occuring stuctures of triorganotin(IV) complexes with different coordination geometries (Hadjikakou and Hadjiliadis, 2009). Figure 1.1: Frequent occurring structures in triorganotin(IV) complexes (A-C) (Hadjikakou and Hadjiliadis, 2009. p. 236) At figure 1.1, complexes A to C falls on the category of discrete structures. It is commonly found that Ar3SnO2CRËÅ   exhibit discrete structures such as triphenyltin carboxylates. Complexes A shows possible dicarboxylate ligand that can form a linear polymer by bridging triorganotin(IV) groups. Complexes B is a structure that closely resemble to trigonal bipyramid containing two equivalent CO bonds with facial alkyl groups whereas complexes C shows tetrahedral geometry with two non-equivalent CO bonds. The axial sites for complexes A to C are all occupied by O-Sn-O electronegative substituents (Davies, et al., 2008). 1.5Tin Application It is undeniably that tin compounds have contributed and played a crucial role in various fields such as its property as an anticancer agent, in vitro anti-bacterial, wood preservatives, pesticides etc (Davies, et al., 2008). The main focus of tin application would be its organotin complexes due to its biologically active compounds in potentially lowering cancerous cells. Therefore, tremendous focus have actually diverted to anti-cancer field though it’s still have a wide applications. Table 1.3Industrial uses of organotin(IV) compounds (Omae, 2002) 1.5.1Agriculture Triorganotin(IV) compounds are proven to be extremely useful in agricultural and industry as they act as fungicides, molluscides, acaricides ,biocides and pesticides based on the research and reviews conducted (Kizlink, 2001; Nath, et al., 2013). For examples, toxicity towards insects and mammals are contributed by trimethyltins whereas Gram-negative bacteria are affected by tri-n-propyltins. In addition, tri-n-butyltin and triphenyltin compounds are effective against fungi. Presence of triorganotins pose as a lethal to mosquitoes and their larvae. Moreover,tributytin chloride act as an strong repellent for rodents in crops. Besides that, snails control is affected by both triphenyltin acetate and triphenyltin chloride as molluscicides. This will help to prevent schistosome infections in human (Piver, 1973). According to Kizlink studies, the presence of n-butyl, phenyl and cyclohexyl groups will greatly increase the biocidal activity (Davies, et al., 2008). Tricyclohexyltin hydroxide and trineophenyltin oxide acts as a acaricides which are used on citrus and vegetable crops though they are not conditioned to resistance environment (Batt, 2006). Whereas triphenyltin(IV) hydroxide and triphenytltin(IV) acetate are used in high value crops when there is potential for the crops to be infected such as early blight, Alternaria solani (GUENTHNER, et al., 2000). Therefore, the common crops used for fungicides are potatoes, pecans etc. With all the advantageous as biocides, ,little did people know that when triorganotin(IV) compunds are capable of adsorbed into the soil. This will eventually lead to contamination of surface water due to runoff (Okoro, et al., 2011). 1.5.2 Anti-cancer Activity In 1965, platinum complexes which is known as cis-diamminedichloroplatinum or cisplatin that characterized anti-proliferative activity has been discovered by Rosenberg (Alama, et al., 2009). Since then, platinum (II) complexes has been used as anti-cancer agent (Lippard and Jamieson, 1999). Regardless of its success, conducted studies has shown that it possess side effects (Langer, et al., 2013). Therefore, a non-platinum metal complexes field has been been prompted to studied with continual investigation of new complexes as antitumor drugs. Besides that, there has been many reviews and studies on organotin carboxylates due to its antitumor potential. Generally, triorganotin(IV) complexes had been widely known to possess superior activity than diorganotin deriavatives (Baul, et al., 2005; Ali, et al., 2011; Yip, et al., 2012). This rules apply to some of the activties and had been recognized as R3SnL > R2SnL2 > RSnL3. Literature had indicated that triphenyltin(IV) complexes have remarkable activty in in vitro antitumor against human mamary tumour (MCF-7) and colon carcinoma (WIDR) (Baul, et al., 2009). It is also reported that the actvity of triphenyltin(IV) complexes are higher than other complexes with p-hydroxybenzoic acids. This is because of the high values of half inhibitory concentration (IC50) lipoxygenase inhibition compared to organitins(IV) and also reference cisplastin. Besides that, the inhibition of lipoxygenase and the activity of anti-proliferative against smooth muscle tumor, a leiomyosarcoma cells are higher for triorganitin(IV) compounds compared to diorganotin(IV) compounds (Nu, Li and Li, 2014). High lipophilic behaviour ,ability to penetrate cell membrane and promotion of binding to biological molecules due to its phenyls group of triorganotin(IV) carboxylates showed high cytotoxic activity further confirms its impressive cytotoxicity in vitro against human lung cell line and human hepatocellular carcinoma cell line (Ma, et al., 2014). Furthermore, spontaneous disproportionation reactions in solution may undergone by triorganotin(IV) derivatives into di- and tetraorganotin(IV) derivatives. In the mean time, lost of alkyl or aryl group may happened in in vivo during interception of aromatase enzyme. Therefore, there is possibility to recognize diorganotin(IV) complexes might be the ultimatum of cytotoxic agent and pharmacokinetic considerations in relation to commonly observed triorganotin(IV) compounds’ high activity (Alama, et al., 2009). The organotin carboxylates can be further studied by exploring the ligand of the carboxylic acid, coordination number of the central tin atoms which play a crucial role in determine factor of the anti-tumor activity or cytotoxicity properties (Hadjikakou and Hadjiliadis, 2009; Ding, et al., 2012; Thorpe, et al., 2013). In conclusion, simultaneous in researching leads to potential in discovery in designing new anticancer drugs which will greatly help in our advancement in the medical field. 1.5.3 Antifouling Exploit of trioganotin(IV) compounds can be used as a biocidal agent in anti-fouling paints for ships. In fact, tri-n-butyltin oxide (TBTO) is the first organotin compound to be discover for its properties. The function of anti-fouling systems is to coat and paint ships that acts as protective layer in order to inhibit attachment of Chlamydomas sp. or acorn barnacles. Shipping industry will face a serious problem if marine fouling occur due to increased surface roughness and resistance in water. Therefore, a consumption of 40% of fuel is needed to maintain the normal speed (Omae, 2003). Furthermore, triorganotin(IV) compounds are resistance towards corrosion on aluminum hulls which is why it is favoured. Besides that the ability of tributyltin oxide to mix with pain solvents as a colorless liquid can be used in many biocidal applications. However, tributyltin oxide is highly soluble in seawater and thus giving a short term protection. Whereas, triphenyltin(IV) fluoride has become a common antifungal paint due to its long life protection from algae and shells (Omae, 2003). Even though both tributyltin oxide and triphenyltin(IV) fluoride made a good antifouling paint, studies had shown that they contribute contamination to the aquatic environment (Hartl, 2012). It was suggested that biocides release is caused by high pressure hosing activities in which the paint particles become attached with the sediments and also leaching (Konstantinou and Albanis, 2004) 1.5.4 Wood preservatives It is undeniable that wood is a precious gift from the mother nature and serves as as a wide applicant in the world. Specific wood species are needed for construction due its superior physical, mechanical and aesthetically pleasing performance (Jusoh, 2012). However, not all wood species are durable for outdoor activities. Therefore, organotin(IV) compounds are set as a wood preservatives such as tributyltin(IV) oxide and tributyltin(IV) naphthenate. Based on Kizlink research in year 2000, triorganotin(IV) compounds are found to inhibit the growth of mycelium from wood-destroying fungi Coniophora puteana, Serpula lacrymans and mould suspensions. It is reported that butyl group in n-alkyi chains contained by triorganotin(IV) compounds such as bis(tributyltin) oxide and tributyltin N, N-diethyldithiocarbamate is highly effective against fungi. On the other hand, inhibitory activity of fungicides of triphenyltin(IV) compounds appear to be lower than tributyltin(IV) compounds. This studies indicated and proven that smaller molecular volume of R3Sn have a better establisment to the site of inhibitory action compared to bigger molecular volume. Whereas in the studies of Jusoh, it was suggested that Alstonia schlaris, Macaranga triloba and Hevea brasiliensis were preserved succesfully by organotin(IV) compounds. This results would be further supported by the binding of tin compounds with the wood cell from the FTIR spectra which serves as a preservations of treatability of the specific wood species. 1.5.5 Poly (vinyl chloride) (PVC) stabilizers The degradation of poly (vinyl chloride) (PVC) or oxygenolysis occur at lower temperature of its processing temperature. Thus, conjugation of double bonds are established and the decomposition will release hydrogen chloride (HCI) which then be reduced by heat stabilizers through absorption (Arkis and Balkose, 2004; Wang, et al., 2014). The stabilizers are composed of mono or di-disubstituted organotin(IV) compounds which usually added to pipes, films and packing materials due to their thermal stability (Nu, Li and Li, 2014). Common PVC stabilizers can be differentiated with their alkyl group of organotins which is methyl, butyl and octyl (Okoro, et al., 2011). Since the toxicity of monoorganotin stabilizers towards mammals are extremely low, they are widely used with an added advantage of low raw material cost. On the other hand, the efficiency of octyltins are lesser due to its lower tin content (Batt, 2006). According to Songwon in 2013 by Tin Intermediates Selection Guide, the examples of organtin(IV) complex used as a heat stabilizers is butyltin(IV) mercaptide, dibutyltin(IV) dilaurate, monobutyltin tris(2-ethylhexanoate) and dioctyltin mercaptide. Tin mercaptides are found to be the most desired due to its high efficiency acting as a weak acid reacting with labile chloride sites on PVC. Besides that, solubility of the stabilizer and lubrication in polymer processing is enhanced by the high molecular weights and ester group in mercaptan ligands (Batt, 2006). 1.6 Other usage of Organotin(IV) compounds Besides organotin(IV) compounds acts as an antibacterial and antifungal agent, it also has mothproofing properties to treated fabrics such as bis(tributyltin) oxide. This is due the advantage of being lacking of color and staining. Staphylococcus aureus, a bacteria found in hospital also can be controlled by chemical bis(tributyltin) oxide (Piver, 1973). Diorganotin(IV) compounds are used as catalysts to in process of forming polyurethane and silicon elastomers (Okoro, et al., 2011). Dibutyltin(IV) compounds such as diibutytin(IV) dilaurate is responsible in controlling tapeworms for poultry such as Raillietina cesticillus. 1.7 Effects of Organotin(IV) compounds Humans are affected by organotins consumption of contaminated food, waters from pipelines of PVC or inhalation from agricultural activities and industry processes. The symptoms includes liver damage, loss of weight and neurological disorder. Birds are affected by their uptake of food in which their body structure, diet and metabolism of butyltin determines the accumulation in their tissues. Tri-n-butyltin oxide will greatly impact the immunological system and hormones activities of the birds. Whereas the entrance of organotins to fishes is through uptake of water from the gills and diet factor. The toxic effects would be on the red blood cells, gills and liver in the presence of tributyltin(IV) compounds(Namiesnik, et al., 2013). Another evidence was proved by studying chronic toxicity of organotin(IV) compounds by observing gastropods as subjects. It was found that gastropods exhibit imposex which can be defined as having male organs such as penis in a female species even with low concentration of tributyltins. This literally means that contamination of organotins greatly affects all biological living species (Omae. 2002) 1.8 Objectives The main objectives of this research is to synthesis (4-amino-3,5-dichlorobenzoato)triphenyltin(IV) from the reaction between 4-amino-3,5-dichlorobenzoic acid with triphenyltin(IV) oxide. The second objective of this research is to study the characterization of the synthesized complexes through determination of melting point, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen elemental analysis, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) as KBR dics, 119Sn, 1H and 13C Nuclear Magnetic Spectroscopy (NMR) with the means of quantitatively and qualitatively. The third objective for this study is to determine the structure and coordination geometry of the tin moiety carboxylates. Molar ratio of the reactants, polarity of solvent, temperature of refluxing etc. will contribute to the effects of coordination number and binding mode of the ligand to the tin atom which will be investigated.

Summary of Monster by Sanyika Shakur Essay -- Sanyika Shakur Monster G

Summary of Monster by Sanyika Shakur Growing up in a world of gangs, death, and suffering Kody Scott, also known as Monster Kody, grew up in a life of struggle. From eleven years old Kody knew what he wanted a to be, a gangster. Nothing could stop him from becoming one of the most feared gang member of the late 1970?s and early 80?s except maybe his own conscience. Kody Scott goes through an evolution, from a child to Monster Kody to finally Sanyika Shakur, his Muslim name. Sanyika Shakur is a true survivor, considering everything that has taken place in his life he has managed to make something of himself from nothing. Kody Scott was born into the gang life weither he liked it or not. Born on 1963 in South Central Los Angeles Kody?s life would be affected by the growing number of gangs inevitably. Kody knew he had a choice to be made, be a gang member or be a pedestrian. He viewed pedestrians as spineless nerds who were always victims of someone?s ridicule or physical violence, who never responded to an affront of any type. He himself had a taste of pedestrian life in grade school were he was picked on and had his lunch money taken from him. ?Early on I saw and felt both sides of the game being played where I lived. It was during my time in elementary school that I chose to never be a victim again, if I could help it?(Shakur 100). Being in a gang gave Kody a feeling of security in a city of violence. ?I felt very different, older, more attached than any of...

Explore the ways in which writers present strong feelings to interest the reader or audience

Various techniques are used by writers to present strong feelings which evoke emotion from the reader or audience. Literary techniques are used in great lengths to both emphasise strong feelings in a literary piece and to also evoke strong feelings from an audience. The techniques embody language, structure and form. The experimentation of structure and poetic techniques used by writers create strong feelings within both the contemporary and present audience, ensuring audiences were and always will be interested in the literary piece.In the prologue of the play ‘Romeo and Juliet’ the audience learn that two dignified households in the city of Verona hold an ‘’ancient grudge’’ towards each other, which remains a source of the violent conflict which is central to the play. It can be suggested that hatred has grown stronger over a long period of time. Similarly, the structure of the poem undermined traditional Elizabethan sonnets which were tradit ionally love poems. Shakespeare’s, however, changed this form to show hatred, violence, conflict and death to foreshadow the ending of ‘Romeo and Juliet’.An Elizabethan audience would have recognised this, creating a feeling of excitement and curiosity within them. Likewise in ‘sonnet 43’ Browning has also undermined the traditional form of a sonnet to create religious imagery to describe her lover. Browning’s sonnet discusses and compares her strong feelings for her lover and as her description develops she illustrates that she loves him with the emotions of an entire life from childhood right through to death. ‘’I love thee with the breath, smiles, tears, of all my life!– And, if God choose, I shall love thee better after death’’. She worships her lover with all her heart and respects him much more than she does her religion. He touches all aspects of her life and gives meaning to her whole existence. The au dience would be shocked as during the Victorian era religion was paramount in the lives of the people. However, it is not just love for one person that is described but the feeling of love itself. Similarly, as Romeo and Juliet become innocent victims of an atrocious ‘‘strife’’ between their families when they ‘’take their lives’’.Considerably, the poet evokes strong feelings towards the emotion of love when Browning is describing the intensity of religion and the link between death and love, as Shakespeare does when he links the idea of love and death in the prologue, allowing both the audience and the reader to openly question the content without profanity. In the play ‘Romeo and Juliet’ segregated from society is a dominant feeling and a reoccurring theme. Romeo and Juliet go to extreme lengths to preserve their love together.They did this as according to Elizabethan society it was nor their ‘Fate’ nor ‘Destiny’ to ever be together. Therefore by choosing to be together consequences to them both mocking society. Juliet was Romeos second love which is ironic and therefore mocks society because Elizabethans believed in fate and destiny and that you could only ever love one person. If you loved again you weren’t really in love or you previous relationship wasn’t love but lust. Romeo’s feelings power his actions contradicting the Elizabethan norm which would undoubtedly evoke strong feelings such as disgust and shock from the audience.Alternatively in the poem ‘My last duchess’ the writer evokes strong feelings from the reader by focusing on the dominance and control of the Duke towards his wife. The audience in this case is this the ambassador acting on behalf of Ferdinand referred to in the poem as ‘The Count, your master’ but in reality it is the reader. This makes the reader feel rebellious as they are ‘eavesdroppin g’ on an interesting conversation. This completely contrasts to Romeos relationship with Juliet. They respect and accept each other as equals whereas the Duke doesn’t respect his wife or even acknowledge her.The duke refers to his wife, not by her name, by ‘she’. A contemporary reader would accept this as men were the dominant spouse. ‘’Half flushed that dies along the throat’’. This is ironic as it is said that the duke killed or had his wife killed, we could interpret that he beheaded or had her beheaded. This would surprise the reader as the duke earlier in the poem he compliments his wife, calling her a ‘wonder’. Although his words and actions are brutal the duke would have been accepted by society as men were believed to be higher than women.Romeo and Juliet’s love was not accepted by an Elizabethan society but they choose to ignore their friends and family, therefore appalling their audiences and mocking their entire beliefs. In the play Romeo and Juliet confusion, doubt and uncertainty are common emotions. During the balcony scene Juliet is speaking her mind unaware that Romeo had been listening. ‘’Be sworn my love, and I shall no longer be a Capulet’’. She would disown her family to be with Romeo, someone whom she had just met. This would have stunned an Elizabethan audience as she came from a rich, well respected family.There is more confusion when Juliet’s feelings change, ‘’ it is too rash, too unadvised, too sudden’’. Shakespeare uses the ‘rule of three’ to emphasise on the word ‘too’. He does this to show how strong Juliet’s doubt towards Romeo is. An Elizabethan audience would be confused as to how she could change her mind as they believed in love at first sight and this was going against that belief. Shakespeare mocks his entire society though his characters by showing them that fate and destiny is not written in the stars but is decided by you.Equally, in the poem ‘The Laboratory’ there is a lot of confusion between the character and the reader. The woman in the poem is searching for the perfect poison to commit a murder. She cannot seem to decide what poison she would like and is distracted by the â€Å"exquisite blue† colours of the poisons. ‘’Yonder soft phial†¦ sure to taste sweetly, – is that poison too? ’’. Her actions are very child-like and due to her frequent change of mind the reader will begin to doubt her motive and seriousness.The reader feels confused at her motives and could assume the poem is comic and not serious. By using a question mark, the poet emphasises the protagonists confused mind. This confusion is further highlighted by the â€Å"-â€Å"which separates the question from the rest of the stanza and draws it to the attention of the reader. Clearly, Shakespeare and Mr and Mrs Browning all convey strong emotion to the audience and readers whether it is through language, structure or form. This is one of the main reasons why their literature has lasted and is greatly treasured.

Background of Peter Drucker - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 8 Words: 2309 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Management Essay Type Narrative essay Did you like this example? INTRODUCTION Background of Peter Drucker Peter Ferdinand Drucker is the real name for Peter Drucker and he was an Austrian-born American. He was known as a management consultant, educator and author that had contributed to the philosophy and practical foundations of the modern business organization. He was born on 19 November 1909 at Vienna, Austria. At that time, his mother was a medicine student while his father was a lawyer and high-civil servant. His mother is Caroline Bondi and his father is Adolf Drucker. After graduates from DÃÆ' ¶bling Gymnasium, Drucker moved to Hamburg, Germany and working as an apprentice at an established cotton trading firm. That was his first working experience. Then, he moved to Frankfurt and worked as a journalist at the Daily Frankfurter General-Anzeiger. With the organization, Drucker had written for the Der ÃÆ'–sterreichische Volkswirt (The Austrian Economist). In 1931, he got a doctorate in international law and public law from the University of Frankfurt. Two years after that, Drucker worked for an insurance company in London in 1933 before he worked as the chief economist at a private bank. Then, he got married with his wife on 1934, which is a year after that. After got married, both of them stayed at United States and Drucker was a university professor as well as a freelance writer and business consultant. Drucker got the authority to be the citizen of United States on 1934. At that time, he was a professor of politics and philosophy at Bennington College until 1949. From 1950 until 1971, Drucker had working as the Professor of Management for twenty-two years at New York University. Drucker was the developer of one of the countryà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s that offered MBA programs for working professionals at Claremont Graduate University when he was at the California in 1971. From 1971, he was the Clarke Professor of Social Science and Management at Claremont until he dies. Claremon t Graduate Universityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Management School was known as the Peter F. Drucker Graduate School of Management before it was changed. Then, it was renamed again as Peter F. Drucker and Masatoshi Ito Graduate School of Management. In 1999, at Claremont Graduate University, Drucker has established the Drucker archives, and it became the Archives Drucker Institute after seven years, in 2006. Drucker taught his last class in 2002 at age 92 but he still active as a consultant to businesses and non-profit organizations. At the age of 95 years old, on 11 November 2005, he died in Claremont, California due to natural causes. Well-known strategy: Management by objectives(MBO) Management by objectives(MBO) is the theory by Peter Drucker. The term management by objectives was first popularized byPeter Druckerin his bookThe Practice of Management, 1954. Management by Objectives(MBO) also known asManagement by Results(MBR). According to Drucker, it is the procedure of settin g objectives and monitoring progress towards them should permeate the entire organization. In the other way, it is a process of defining objectiveswithin an organization so thatmanagement and employees agree to the objectives and understand what they need to do in the organization in order to achieve them. Behind the principle of Management by Objectives (MBO), employees must have a clear understanding of the roles and responsibilities expected of them. Then they can understand how their activities relate to the achievement of the organizations goal and the importance on fulfilling the personal goals of each employee. The features of Management by Objectives (MBO) are superior-subordinate participation, joint goal setting and support from superiors. Superior-subordinate participation means management and subordinates need to understand that in Management by Objectives (MBO), they must work together to come up with goals and objectives. They must jointly agree on exactly how the job duties should be handled in order to attain those goals. For the joint goal setting, the cooperation level is required in the Management by Objectives (MBO) process. All sides must realize that the goals that are being set should be tangible, verifiable and measurable. In order it to be a successful venture, management and subordinates need to agree on objectives that are realistic and attainable. That is relating with the previous duties from both superior-subordinate participation that have to come out with the goals that are achievable by the organization. The third features is, superiors should have to make he available to the employee in term of giving them full of support. Superiors should offer advice and guidance to every individual that is working towards the organizational goals that have been set. This is exactly how Management by Objectives (MBO) works in maintaining a high level of communication and cooperation between management and employees. Managem ent by Objectives (MBO) consists of five steps which are goal setting, manager-subordinate involvement, matching goals and resources, implementation of plan and review and appraisal of performance. The first step is goal setting. The organizational objectives have to be crystal clear before any other steps can be considered. These are usually decided upon by top executives after consulting with the entire management team and the final decisions are them passed on to the rest of the organization, with the main focus on Key Result Areas (KRA). Key Result Areas are the targets or goals set by an entity in their strategic plan. It is used in many areas of business including customer service and human resources for examples are the duties and responsibilities of a person are to carry out in their job and their performance on each one. Second step is manager-subordinate involvement. Once the bigger organizational details have been decided, management and subordinates get to work on setting individual goals, with everyone within the organization involved. This joint consultation is important because people become highly motivated in achieving objectives that were set by them to start with. The goals of subordinates are specific and short range in order easier for subordinateà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s unit to achieve within the specific period of time that already had been decided. Matching goals and resources is the next step. It is means nothing if not matching goals and resources. At this point, management must look at providing their people with all the tools and materials they need to meet those goals. If the goals are precisely set, then the resources requirement can also be precisely measured thus making the resources allocation easier. The allocation of resources should be done in consultation with the subordinates. Once all the objectives have been decided and resources put in place, the employees can start their work and responsibility according to the plan. They can call on management at any time if they need further assistance. As long as it is within the frame work of organizational policies, there should be minimum interference by management. This is the fourth step, which is the implementation of plan. The last step is review and appraisal of performance. It is important that managers and subordinates meet regularly to evaluate performance and progress. The same fair and measurable standards should be used during this process as they were in the planning stage. By review and appraisal of employeeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s performance, it can improve the morale of subordinates since the manager shows an active interest in the subordinateà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s work and progress. It will attract and motivate employee to do their work better and getting better after that. There have some of the advantages of Management by Objectives (MBO). Firstly is motivation which means involving employees in the whole process of goal setting and increasing employee empowerment. Motivation in the workplace is obviously very important. Creating a motivating environment at the workplace produces happy employees, low staff turnover and absenteeism, enhanced productivity, satisfied customers and better financial performance. At the same time, this will increases employee job satisfaction and commitment towards their works. Another advantage is better communication and coordination. Frequent reviews and interactions between superiors and subordinates help to maintain harmonious relationships within the organization and also to solve many problems. Through this, it will avoid any miscommunication and any information will be sent clearly, thus will produce effective and productive staffs. The barriers or gap between the top management and lower management team will be reducing and there is an existing tight bond of relationships within the organization. For Management by Objectives (MBO) to be effective, individual managers m ust understand the specific objectives of their job and how those objectives fit with the overall company objectives set by the board of directors and it is linked to the organizations objectives. The managers of the various units or sub-units, or sections of an organization should know not only the objectives of their unit but should also actively participate in setting these objectives and make responsibility for them. The limitation means something that bounds, restrains, or confines. There are several limitations to the assumptive base underlying the impact of Management by Objectives (MBO) which are time consuming, develop conflicting objectives and lack of appreciation. Time consuming problem might occur in this theory. Management of Objectives (MBO) is incredibly effective, but it takes time to show the progress. The process of setting objectives is not something that tends to happen quickly and easy. It needs regular meeting in order to assess just how well the system is working and the progress from time to time. Another limitation in Management by Objectives (MBO) is develops conflicting objectives. The goals and objectives of each individual within the organization may not be the same with the other employees, which are particularly happening when there are multiple departments. Each department will have their own ideas of success, which they may feel is different from the rest, all of which creates conflict and at the end it will give bad impact and the objectives cannot be achieved by the organization successfully. Besides, Management of Objectives (MBO) will have the lack of appreciation as the limitation. The purpose of Management of Objectives (MBO) is to involve everyone in the goal setting of the organization, but it can still fail if the goals are not properly managed. It can also be a limitation if management do not delegate properly or motivate accordingly. There have some criticism for Management by Objectives (MBO) for exa mple W. Edwards Deming said, Management by Objectives (MBO) is a barrier to quality improvement. He make this when United States having industrial problem due to Japanese dramatic creation of quality product at low cost after World War II, through à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Eliminate Management by Objectivesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ . There is no clear understanding of Management by Objectives (MBO) in relation to strategic management (Dale Krueger, 2004). Management by Objectives (MBO) does not provide full and complete strategic management and it can only be accomplished on a group basis but not the staffing and external environment. Here are some strategies to make Management by Objectives (MBO) an effective which are by support from all, training of managers and allocation of adequate time and resources. Support from all means executives may only implement a Management by Objectives (MBO) into the organization, but it will only work if every member of management is on board with the plan and wo rk together in order to achieve the goals. It is not only management that has to buy in, though, with every single employee need to understand what is needed to make it work and then co-operating every step of the way. They really have to feel that Management by Objectives (MBO) is a program that benefits to all. Training of managers is the next strategies should be implementing to make Management by Objectives (MBO) effectives. Since Management by Objectives (MBO) differs from any other management style, existing bosses must be brought up to date with the philosophy of Management by Objectives (MBO). They need to understand how the principles of Management by Objectives (MBO) can be implementing into the current company philosophy. This training is a crucial part of the process, especially since it is the manager and employees that are going to be responsible for setting the majority of goals and objectives. Another strategy should be implement is allocation of adequate time and resources, even the best planned Management by Objectives (MBO) program requires a minimum three to five years before it will give the positive results. Managers and employees should not employ Management by Objectives (MBO) thinking that it will be a quick fix solution and it will be settle in a short time. CONCLUSION Peter Druckerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s idea and concept of Management by Objectives (MBO) is still stay in this 21st century. Nowadays, the economy is rapidly growth in technology development. Employees are more preferred for freedom and active participation in management. Implementation of Management by Objectives (MBO) will help the employees to have the sense of full satisfaction and motivation as it enable them in the decision making and management process actively. Management by Objectives (MBO) is suitable practicing within the management in knowledge-based organizations such as software development companies that need all their workers or employees getting involve in the management and always come out with the new ideas that are never being introduced before. The employees are given sufficient responsibility and authority to achieve their individual objectives. Accomplishment of individual objectives eventually contributes to achieving organizational goals. References Peter Drucker. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved Mac 23, 2014, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Drucker Management by Objective. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved Mac 23, 2014, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_by_objectives The Drucker Institute. (2014). Peter Druckerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Life and Legacy. Retrieved Mac 22, 2014, from https://www.druckerinstitute.com/ Management by Objectives. (2012). Advantages of Goals and Objectives Management. Retrived Mac 22, 2014, from https://managementbyobjectives.com/advantages-of-goals-and-objectives-management/ Management by Objectives. (2012). Limitations of Management by Objectives. Retrieved Mac 22, 2014, from https://managementbyobjectives.com/limitations-of-management-by-objectives/ Management by Objectives. (2012). How To Make Management by Objectives Effective? Retrieved Mac 22, 2014, from https://managementbyobjectives.com/how-to-make-management-by-objectives-effective/ Bob Krone, PhD. (2005). Management by Objectives. A Controversial Classic. Retrieved Mac 23, 2014, from https://artwork.net/ks/asq711/quality5a.htm Dale Krueger, Ph.D. Strategic management and management by objectives, 2004, pp 1-8. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Background of Peter Drucker" essay for you Create order